Consequences for New Zealand
Throughout the course of New Zealand history, it is evident that our involvement in key historical events, such as World War II and the Italian campaign, has irrevocably influenced the progression of our nation. The consequences attributed to New Zealand’s involvement in Italy and the Second Battle of Monte Cassino truly illustrates the power of war as a catalyst for social change. Retrospectively, we perceive a multitude of consequences for our nation that emanated from Cassino. The more dominant of these include the affects of Lieutenant-General Freyberg’s leadership, and the nature of the battle as the impetus for a cultural transformation within New Zealand.
Consequences of Freyberg’s Leadership
The leadership of Lieutenant-General Freyberg during The Second Battle of Monte Cassino has been analysed by historians and called into question as to whether it was effective or caused unnecessary harms to the allied war effort. Controversially, Freyberg ordered the allied bombing of the monastery at Monte Cassino, and simultaneously implemented a frontal offensive, similar to the first battle, which proved to be ineffectual and costly due to the German defensive position. For New Zealand, the controversy of these decisions is significant as Freyberg is a venerated war hero, and his actions ultimately reflect on the reputation of our country. As we are a small nation, our reputation is integral to the success of our relations on a global scale. It is widely agreed by historians that although the monastery was implicated in the conflict when Germany incorporated it into the Gustav line, it is Freyberg who is held accountable for the decision to execute the bombing. Despite the contention as to the validity of the motivations for the bombing, the global consequences are clear.
The first of these consequences was the extent of the arguably unnecessary deaths in the 7th Brigade due to the lack of communication of the details of the bombing itself. If anything, the resulting casualties caused by shrapnel from the brittle bedrock, is a testament to the proximity of the oblivious 4th Indian Division soldiers to the monastery at the time. Perhaps if this were the sole adversity inflicted on allied soldiers by the bombing, Freyberg would not be subjected to the same criticism. However, it is widely acknowledged that the subsequent three battles which took place as the allies attempted to capture monastery hill, occurred as a result of this abrogation of responsibility. Peter Cochrane, an observer of the bombing and the Indian efforts to assault the monastery, endorses this historical analysis:
“It was typical of this hopelessly disorganized battle and through no fault of the army, the divisional attack could not be synchronised with the bombing of the monastery; it would have given the unfortunate infantry a sporting chance… Cassino was our first experience of an ‘allied’ battle and we did not like it. We could and did respect our fellow soldiers of all nationalities, but the command structure and staff work seemed to us below par” (Matthew Parker, 2004).
It follows that if the confusion of the bombing could have been successfully exploited as planned, it may have only taken one attempt before the monastery was in allied hands. Unfortunately, the lack of communication caused confusion in our own forces resulting in a pressured and ill-prepared series of confrontations. The capacity for allied success was inherently disadvantaged, and we paid for it dearly with a cost of 162 soldiers of the 1st Royal Sussex Regiment, 100 men of the 1/9th Gurkhas, 149 men from the 1/2nd Gurkhas and just shy of 200 men from the Rajputana Rifles (Matthew Parker, 2004). The accusations of flawed tactical decisions are also relevant in this regard. Before the plan to combine an aerial bombardment with an infantry offensive on the massif, General Tuker had suggested an attack through the French position to flank the monastery from the mountains. However after Tuker fell to sickness, Freyberg succumbed to the false logic that the seemingly small distance between the established allied position and the monastery could be bridged with a single decisive attack. It was this misconception that justified his decision to implement a frontal assault at Cassino, which had already proven to be costly.
Aside from the aftermath of the allied inability to successfully execute a conjoint land-air offensive, the bombing also generated a multitude of cultural repercussions. The monastery itself was a building of significant cultural import. An integral part of the Benedictine order, it housed the bones of St Benedict and his twin sister St Scholastica and had stood for over 1000 years as a venerated symbol of the Christian Church (Glyn Harper, John Tonkin-Covell, 2013). Freyberg’s request to destroy a building of such cultural substance earned this action the unofficial characterization of a war crime: a further detriment to the New Zealand reputation. Eisenhower expressed support for the notion to protect cultural monuments such as this, as he asserted that we must respect the relics of the civilization that has contributed so much to modern society (Glyn Harper, John Tonkin-Covell, 2013). One of the widespread counter-arguments to this is the premise that the fate of a building cannot be compared to the value of a human life. However, the Archbishop of Canterbury proclaims that this logic undermines the very moral principles that compelled the allies to oppose the German totalitarian regime in the first place:
“Some people ask scornfully what is the worth of a few dead stones in comparison with the life of one single soldier? But they forget that these things belong to the very civilization for which we are fighting against barbarism. On the other hand, others, in their zeal for history and art, entirely overlook the merciless demands of war. In the interests of the enslaved and oppressed countries we must not let ourselves be deterred by anything that will lead to the swift defeat of our enemies” (Rudolf Bohmler, Monte Cassino: A German View, 1964).
Although the Archbishop concedes that it is important to consider the detrimental impact of an on-going war, he urges society to consider the underlying cultural implications of events such as this. Rudolf Bohmler, a German commander present at the Battle of Monte Cassino, endorsed this opinion and considered the bombing not only “an act of sheer tactical stupidity”, but also an “irreplaceable loss to the whole of the Christian world” (Rudolf Bohmler, 1964). Historian Alan R. Millet who labelled it, “one of the most inexcusable bombings of the war”, further supports the abhorrent nature of the bombing. These arguments are particularly cogent and all serve to illustrate the cultural impact of Freyberg’s actions and how this adversely affected our New Zealand reputation on a global scale. Further consequences emerged for Freyberg, which ultimately led to a tarnished perception of New Zealand even to this day, when Bohmler asserted that if the allies were to have executed the strategy suggested by Major-General Tuker, the monastery would have fallen (Rudolf Bohmler, 1964). The bombing of Monte Cassino had clear global repercussion and even now, the footage provokes feelings of discontent as we observe an act that is so fundamentally contrary to our understanding of humanity that it is uncomfortably compelling to watch. The destruction of a historical monument for negligible strategic gain and the nature of the contribution of historical monuments to modern culture resulted from Freyberg’s decision to bomb the monastery; this is a consequence for New Zealand as we are implicated in his decision.
Cultural Implications for New Zealand
Inextricably linked to the 2nd Battle of Monte Cassino was the more direct impact on the development of our independent cultural identity, which we collectively associate with today. As a result of the 28th (Maori) Battalion’s involvement at Cassino and in the Italian campaign, New Zealand experienced a cultural transformation as we ultimately embraced a multi-cultural identity. At the time, this was a particularly revolutionary concept, and it is something that has progressed to enrich our own society and influence the treatment of native and introduced cultures in the present. This consequence manifested itself on two fronts: the impact on New Zealand cultural diversity, and the revitalisation of Maori culture. Prior to World War II, Maori culture was retreating from what had previously been a rich culture, and was becoming hard to maintain as a unified and celebrated identity. This was caused by a lack of focus in this area by the government, the influence on Maori by introduced European cultural aspects and a society that did not effectively integrate to form a unique identity. At the time, there was a clear differentiation between the two cultures and a clear separation as Maori existed on the fringe of European society and had a declining population of 87,000 people (Ministry for Culture and Heritage, 2013). This phenomenon fostered the dichotomy between these two cultures, and due to the overwhelming presence of one at the expense of the other, Maori culture started to become ‘diluted’. In the words of policy analyst Simon Chapple:
“Prior to World War II the Maori people had a much weaker collective identity, which was overridden by much more powerful group loyalties. Despite considerable and on-going efforts… sustaining a pan-Maori, or ethnic identity proved elusive before World War II” (Simon Chapple, Maori Socio-Economic Disparity, 2000).
However, the 28th (Maori) Battalion’s participation in the Italian Campaign, and particularly the 2nd Battle of Monte Cassino, had a crucial role in changing this. Upon arriving in Italy, the Maori Battalion brought passion and fervour to everything they were involved in, and represented key aspects of the New Zealand culture on a global stage. In doing so, they revitalised aspects of their own culture, such as the performing of the Haka, and instigated what was to become a process for the recovery of Maori ethnicity. The structure of the battalion also acted as a vehicle for the development of social harmony within what was historically a highly confrontational society, as the battalion was comprised of members across a range of tribes. During conflict, these individuals were forced to work together as a cohesive and functioning entity. The Maori Battalion’s own website reinforces this concept: “… The Maori Battalion, with its tribal structure and emphasis on the value of Maroitanga, helped lay the foundations for the Maori cultural and economic renaissance of recent times” (www.28maoribattalion.org.nz). As the battalion developed a sense of purpose, its motivation to succeed resulted in military exploits, which earned it the status as one of the best fighting units in the allied forces (J. F. Cody, 1956). Increasingly, Maori were becoming recognized for their efforts through awards such as the Victoria’s Cross awarded to Te Moananui-a-Kiwa Ngarimu, and the acknowledgment of the battalion’s perseverance during offensives such as the Cassino railway station assault.
The success of the battalion earned the respect of the European society within New Zealand and in turn, this benefited Maori society, and these benefits are still felt today. They had “bought their citizenship” (Sir Apirana Ngata) with their contribution to the New Zealand war effort at the cost of 649 lives and 1712 injuries. In the words of Sir Apirana Ngata in reference to the participation of the battalion in the war effort: “We will lose some of the most promising of our young leaders. We have lost a few already. But we will gain the respect of our Pakeha brothers and the future of our race as a component and respected part of the New Zealand people will be less precarious” (www.nzhistory.net.nz). Meanwhile, on the home front Maori united to support involvement of the 28th (Maori) Battalion by forming the Maori War Effort Organization. This fostered Maori leadership and the autonomy felt by those involved had a major influence on New Zealand as these individuals progressed to become involved on the political stage in future years (Cluny McPherson, Race and Nation: Ethnic Systems in the Modern World, 2005). As a result of these factors, Maori society benefited as its members received a much higher status in New Zealand and evoked a sense of engagement with the nation. Furthermore, Maori culture was embraced as race relations improved, the Treaty of Waitangi held a more important place than before the war, and predominant Maori figures successfully argued for the implementing of welfare benefits, rehabilitation and housing.
One of the most significant consequences of the Maori involvement in World War II and Monte Cassino was the urbanization of Maori on their return to New Zealand. Although the war was not the sole cause of urbanization, as this was initiated by a combination of different motives, there is a well-supported theory that as Maori culture was revitalised and embraced by the European community, they aspired to become more integrated into modern New Zealand society. This was the impetus for Maori urbanization, which led to a 12% increase in the number of Maori living in cities, and consequently resulted in better access to education, housing, employment opportunities and health care (Simon Chapple, 2000). Although urbanization arguably resulted in the loss of some aspects of native Maori culture, it is evident that a variation of this ethnicity has emerged through the acculturation of different aspects of Maori and European culture, to create a distinctly unique New Zealand identity. Consequently, we as New Zealanders are now proud to be a part of a multicultural country which celebrates native ethnicity in schools, art and language, and we are wholly enriched by the cultural diversity emanating from Maori society. In the words of Simon Chapple:
“Maori ethnicity is a recent construct born out of, based on descent from the Maori people, but born out of the process of post-war urbanization and consequent population mixing, the growth of mass communications, and the often underestimated indluences of world-wide trends of growing ethnic consciousness” (Simon Chapple, 2000).
In this instance, war truly did act as a catalyst for social change, and has resulted in the New Zealand culture we identify with today.
In order to understand the other long-lasting consequences of the 2nd Battle of Monte Cassino you need not look further than the recent 70th Anniversary of the conflict itself. Evident through recent media, New Zealanders are celebrated by the Cassino community as the liberators of German control. This reverence manifests itself in the Commonwealth cemetery at the base of Monte Cassino and the plaque at the railway station commemorating the efforts of the 28th (Maori) Battalion. The New Zealand government demonstrated its support of the cause by flying over 30 Cassino veterans to the anniversary event, where they participated in the honouring of those who fought and died for the liberation of the town. A touch of royal approval is never amiss, and in this instance, Prince Harry himself made a special effort to recognize the contributions of the New Zealand veterans. The 70th anniversary goes to show the extent that the Second Battle of Cassino impacted New Zealand society.
Monte Cassino is now a celebrated part of our history as it significantly contributed to our culture and had consequences for New Zealand that will be remembered across the course of our history.
Consequences of Freyberg’s Leadership
The leadership of Lieutenant-General Freyberg during The Second Battle of Monte Cassino has been analysed by historians and called into question as to whether it was effective or caused unnecessary harms to the allied war effort. Controversially, Freyberg ordered the allied bombing of the monastery at Monte Cassino, and simultaneously implemented a frontal offensive, similar to the first battle, which proved to be ineffectual and costly due to the German defensive position. For New Zealand, the controversy of these decisions is significant as Freyberg is a venerated war hero, and his actions ultimately reflect on the reputation of our country. As we are a small nation, our reputation is integral to the success of our relations on a global scale. It is widely agreed by historians that although the monastery was implicated in the conflict when Germany incorporated it into the Gustav line, it is Freyberg who is held accountable for the decision to execute the bombing. Despite the contention as to the validity of the motivations for the bombing, the global consequences are clear.
The first of these consequences was the extent of the arguably unnecessary deaths in the 7th Brigade due to the lack of communication of the details of the bombing itself. If anything, the resulting casualties caused by shrapnel from the brittle bedrock, is a testament to the proximity of the oblivious 4th Indian Division soldiers to the monastery at the time. Perhaps if this were the sole adversity inflicted on allied soldiers by the bombing, Freyberg would not be subjected to the same criticism. However, it is widely acknowledged that the subsequent three battles which took place as the allies attempted to capture monastery hill, occurred as a result of this abrogation of responsibility. Peter Cochrane, an observer of the bombing and the Indian efforts to assault the monastery, endorses this historical analysis:
“It was typical of this hopelessly disorganized battle and through no fault of the army, the divisional attack could not be synchronised with the bombing of the monastery; it would have given the unfortunate infantry a sporting chance… Cassino was our first experience of an ‘allied’ battle and we did not like it. We could and did respect our fellow soldiers of all nationalities, but the command structure and staff work seemed to us below par” (Matthew Parker, 2004).
It follows that if the confusion of the bombing could have been successfully exploited as planned, it may have only taken one attempt before the monastery was in allied hands. Unfortunately, the lack of communication caused confusion in our own forces resulting in a pressured and ill-prepared series of confrontations. The capacity for allied success was inherently disadvantaged, and we paid for it dearly with a cost of 162 soldiers of the 1st Royal Sussex Regiment, 100 men of the 1/9th Gurkhas, 149 men from the 1/2nd Gurkhas and just shy of 200 men from the Rajputana Rifles (Matthew Parker, 2004). The accusations of flawed tactical decisions are also relevant in this regard. Before the plan to combine an aerial bombardment with an infantry offensive on the massif, General Tuker had suggested an attack through the French position to flank the monastery from the mountains. However after Tuker fell to sickness, Freyberg succumbed to the false logic that the seemingly small distance between the established allied position and the monastery could be bridged with a single decisive attack. It was this misconception that justified his decision to implement a frontal assault at Cassino, which had already proven to be costly.
Aside from the aftermath of the allied inability to successfully execute a conjoint land-air offensive, the bombing also generated a multitude of cultural repercussions. The monastery itself was a building of significant cultural import. An integral part of the Benedictine order, it housed the bones of St Benedict and his twin sister St Scholastica and had stood for over 1000 years as a venerated symbol of the Christian Church (Glyn Harper, John Tonkin-Covell, 2013). Freyberg’s request to destroy a building of such cultural substance earned this action the unofficial characterization of a war crime: a further detriment to the New Zealand reputation. Eisenhower expressed support for the notion to protect cultural monuments such as this, as he asserted that we must respect the relics of the civilization that has contributed so much to modern society (Glyn Harper, John Tonkin-Covell, 2013). One of the widespread counter-arguments to this is the premise that the fate of a building cannot be compared to the value of a human life. However, the Archbishop of Canterbury proclaims that this logic undermines the very moral principles that compelled the allies to oppose the German totalitarian regime in the first place:
“Some people ask scornfully what is the worth of a few dead stones in comparison with the life of one single soldier? But they forget that these things belong to the very civilization for which we are fighting against barbarism. On the other hand, others, in their zeal for history and art, entirely overlook the merciless demands of war. In the interests of the enslaved and oppressed countries we must not let ourselves be deterred by anything that will lead to the swift defeat of our enemies” (Rudolf Bohmler, Monte Cassino: A German View, 1964).
Although the Archbishop concedes that it is important to consider the detrimental impact of an on-going war, he urges society to consider the underlying cultural implications of events such as this. Rudolf Bohmler, a German commander present at the Battle of Monte Cassino, endorsed this opinion and considered the bombing not only “an act of sheer tactical stupidity”, but also an “irreplaceable loss to the whole of the Christian world” (Rudolf Bohmler, 1964). Historian Alan R. Millet who labelled it, “one of the most inexcusable bombings of the war”, further supports the abhorrent nature of the bombing. These arguments are particularly cogent and all serve to illustrate the cultural impact of Freyberg’s actions and how this adversely affected our New Zealand reputation on a global scale. Further consequences emerged for Freyberg, which ultimately led to a tarnished perception of New Zealand even to this day, when Bohmler asserted that if the allies were to have executed the strategy suggested by Major-General Tuker, the monastery would have fallen (Rudolf Bohmler, 1964). The bombing of Monte Cassino had clear global repercussion and even now, the footage provokes feelings of discontent as we observe an act that is so fundamentally contrary to our understanding of humanity that it is uncomfortably compelling to watch. The destruction of a historical monument for negligible strategic gain and the nature of the contribution of historical monuments to modern culture resulted from Freyberg’s decision to bomb the monastery; this is a consequence for New Zealand as we are implicated in his decision.
Cultural Implications for New Zealand
Inextricably linked to the 2nd Battle of Monte Cassino was the more direct impact on the development of our independent cultural identity, which we collectively associate with today. As a result of the 28th (Maori) Battalion’s involvement at Cassino and in the Italian campaign, New Zealand experienced a cultural transformation as we ultimately embraced a multi-cultural identity. At the time, this was a particularly revolutionary concept, and it is something that has progressed to enrich our own society and influence the treatment of native and introduced cultures in the present. This consequence manifested itself on two fronts: the impact on New Zealand cultural diversity, and the revitalisation of Maori culture. Prior to World War II, Maori culture was retreating from what had previously been a rich culture, and was becoming hard to maintain as a unified and celebrated identity. This was caused by a lack of focus in this area by the government, the influence on Maori by introduced European cultural aspects and a society that did not effectively integrate to form a unique identity. At the time, there was a clear differentiation between the two cultures and a clear separation as Maori existed on the fringe of European society and had a declining population of 87,000 people (Ministry for Culture and Heritage, 2013). This phenomenon fostered the dichotomy between these two cultures, and due to the overwhelming presence of one at the expense of the other, Maori culture started to become ‘diluted’. In the words of policy analyst Simon Chapple:
“Prior to World War II the Maori people had a much weaker collective identity, which was overridden by much more powerful group loyalties. Despite considerable and on-going efforts… sustaining a pan-Maori, or ethnic identity proved elusive before World War II” (Simon Chapple, Maori Socio-Economic Disparity, 2000).
However, the 28th (Maori) Battalion’s participation in the Italian Campaign, and particularly the 2nd Battle of Monte Cassino, had a crucial role in changing this. Upon arriving in Italy, the Maori Battalion brought passion and fervour to everything they were involved in, and represented key aspects of the New Zealand culture on a global stage. In doing so, they revitalised aspects of their own culture, such as the performing of the Haka, and instigated what was to become a process for the recovery of Maori ethnicity. The structure of the battalion also acted as a vehicle for the development of social harmony within what was historically a highly confrontational society, as the battalion was comprised of members across a range of tribes. During conflict, these individuals were forced to work together as a cohesive and functioning entity. The Maori Battalion’s own website reinforces this concept: “… The Maori Battalion, with its tribal structure and emphasis on the value of Maroitanga, helped lay the foundations for the Maori cultural and economic renaissance of recent times” (www.28maoribattalion.org.nz). As the battalion developed a sense of purpose, its motivation to succeed resulted in military exploits, which earned it the status as one of the best fighting units in the allied forces (J. F. Cody, 1956). Increasingly, Maori were becoming recognized for their efforts through awards such as the Victoria’s Cross awarded to Te Moananui-a-Kiwa Ngarimu, and the acknowledgment of the battalion’s perseverance during offensives such as the Cassino railway station assault.
The success of the battalion earned the respect of the European society within New Zealand and in turn, this benefited Maori society, and these benefits are still felt today. They had “bought their citizenship” (Sir Apirana Ngata) with their contribution to the New Zealand war effort at the cost of 649 lives and 1712 injuries. In the words of Sir Apirana Ngata in reference to the participation of the battalion in the war effort: “We will lose some of the most promising of our young leaders. We have lost a few already. But we will gain the respect of our Pakeha brothers and the future of our race as a component and respected part of the New Zealand people will be less precarious” (www.nzhistory.net.nz). Meanwhile, on the home front Maori united to support involvement of the 28th (Maori) Battalion by forming the Maori War Effort Organization. This fostered Maori leadership and the autonomy felt by those involved had a major influence on New Zealand as these individuals progressed to become involved on the political stage in future years (Cluny McPherson, Race and Nation: Ethnic Systems in the Modern World, 2005). As a result of these factors, Maori society benefited as its members received a much higher status in New Zealand and evoked a sense of engagement with the nation. Furthermore, Maori culture was embraced as race relations improved, the Treaty of Waitangi held a more important place than before the war, and predominant Maori figures successfully argued for the implementing of welfare benefits, rehabilitation and housing.
One of the most significant consequences of the Maori involvement in World War II and Monte Cassino was the urbanization of Maori on their return to New Zealand. Although the war was not the sole cause of urbanization, as this was initiated by a combination of different motives, there is a well-supported theory that as Maori culture was revitalised and embraced by the European community, they aspired to become more integrated into modern New Zealand society. This was the impetus for Maori urbanization, which led to a 12% increase in the number of Maori living in cities, and consequently resulted in better access to education, housing, employment opportunities and health care (Simon Chapple, 2000). Although urbanization arguably resulted in the loss of some aspects of native Maori culture, it is evident that a variation of this ethnicity has emerged through the acculturation of different aspects of Maori and European culture, to create a distinctly unique New Zealand identity. Consequently, we as New Zealanders are now proud to be a part of a multicultural country which celebrates native ethnicity in schools, art and language, and we are wholly enriched by the cultural diversity emanating from Maori society. In the words of Simon Chapple:
“Maori ethnicity is a recent construct born out of, based on descent from the Maori people, but born out of the process of post-war urbanization and consequent population mixing, the growth of mass communications, and the often underestimated indluences of world-wide trends of growing ethnic consciousness” (Simon Chapple, 2000).
In this instance, war truly did act as a catalyst for social change, and has resulted in the New Zealand culture we identify with today.
In order to understand the other long-lasting consequences of the 2nd Battle of Monte Cassino you need not look further than the recent 70th Anniversary of the conflict itself. Evident through recent media, New Zealanders are celebrated by the Cassino community as the liberators of German control. This reverence manifests itself in the Commonwealth cemetery at the base of Monte Cassino and the plaque at the railway station commemorating the efforts of the 28th (Maori) Battalion. The New Zealand government demonstrated its support of the cause by flying over 30 Cassino veterans to the anniversary event, where they participated in the honouring of those who fought and died for the liberation of the town. A touch of royal approval is never amiss, and in this instance, Prince Harry himself made a special effort to recognize the contributions of the New Zealand veterans. The 70th anniversary goes to show the extent that the Second Battle of Cassino impacted New Zealand society.
Monte Cassino is now a celebrated part of our history as it significantly contributed to our culture and had consequences for New Zealand that will be remembered across the course of our history.